The relationship between Japan and Christianity is a long and fascinating story. Since mid-sixteenth century, Christianity has been notably active in Japan, yet today, less than 1.54 percent of Japanese people are Christians (1) ; hence Japan is one of the least evangelized nations in the world. The main question here is therefore, “What are the main reasons why Christianity has not yet succeeded in Japan?” I am aware of the complexity of this question, however, during my studies of Japanese culture, society and history at Leiden University, and because of my active involvement in Christianity, I have gradually developed the hypothesis which I will discuss in detail throughout this paper. There are a number of reasons why Christianity has not yet been successful in Japan, i.e. the interaction between worldviews, theologies, missiologies and society as well as historical-political factors have prevented this. Understanding these factors may help the reader in answering the question above. I will be examining each of them separately, subdividing them into various elements and so as to take a more detailed look at them. Worldviews The Japanese worldview is more or less in conflict with the Western one. This can be traced to conditions in various areas such as religion and culture. In what follows, I discuss some areas where these two worldviews clash. Corporatism / Individualism Corporatism is central to the Japanese worldview. Mutual benefits are sought between the group and individual and harmony is a regarded as a crucial element of life. Unless one grasps the importance of this sense of belonging to a group, it is difficult to understand the mentality of a typical Japanese person (2). Three major categories of groups are vital for a Japanese person. He or she must belong to: family and neighborhood and have some sort of vocational affiliation such as a company or a school, college or university. In Japanese culture, decisions are made based on corporatism within and between these categories. Personal decisions are not allowed to disturb the harmony of these groups even when such decisions are logically beneficial to the individual decision maker. Here the concept of wa becomes important. Wa recognizes that people are not one, yet it expresses the desire to be one by practicing and respecting harmony. In other words, although people are distinct individuals, in Japanese culture, it is generally best if they want the same thing. This deep level of sharing underpins the desire for harmony in interpersonal relations and the consideration of other member of the group. In the context of wa, most Japanese might feel that if they become a Christian they will relinquish some of their ‘Japaneseness’ and abandon the group wa. Christians can be perceived as being antisocial and selfish for disrupting the harmony of the family unit by refusing to observe many traditional Shinto and Buddhist rituals, especially those of praying to spirits and reverencing the dead (3). During his presentation at the 2010 Tokyo Global Mission Consultation, Minoru Okuyama, the director of the Missionary Training Center in Japan, indicated that the Japanese are afraid of disturbing the human relationships within their families or neighborhoods by becoming Christian. Okuyama emphasized that one of the most important things in Japan is harmony or wa. He indicated that those who disturb it are bad, whether they are right or wrong (4). Therefore it is quite hard for a Japanese to decide to become a Christian, for his/her choice means disturbing that harmony. There is a saying in Japanese, deru kugi wa utareru, which means “the protruding nail will be hammered down.” This proverb is a very good example of the manner in which individuals are trained from an early age. Disturbing the group by being too individualistic or out of step with others is considered selfish. The corporatism/individualism dichotomy can also be found in the concepts honne and tatemae. Honne refers to ‘informal, personal reality in disregard of social parameters’, while tatemae means ‘official, public and socially required or politically correct.’ Honne is an opinion or an action motivated by a person’s true inner feelings, whereas tatemae is an opinion or action influenced by social norms. Thus, honne refers to a person’s deep beliefs or intentions, while tatemae refers to motives or intentions that are the result of social attunement, those that are shaped, encouraged, or suppressed by the norms accepted by the majority. These two concepts are often considered dichotomous and in conflict with the genuinely held personal feelings and convictions of those who are socially controlled. It can happen that a person in his/her honne chooses Jesus Christ silently and continues with this usual lifestyle without disturbing the group harmony. He or she does this by suppressing the honne in such a way that his/her decision will not be openly noticed by the groups to which the person belongs. In short, Christianity in Japan cannot succeed if it disturbs the spirit of corporatism and undermines the individual’s sense of belonging to these groups. For instance, when a person becomes a Christian, they stop attending ancestor related ceremonies and rituals. Yet, this act is regarded as a disgrace to the family. Another example is that companies hesitate to employ people who are active members of a religious group. They do this because it is thought that, if they are already a committed member of a religious group they will not be completely devoted to the company; in other words, they will be opposing the spirit of the company. Non-absolutism In Japanese culture truth is often viewed as relative. The Japanese evaluate information on the basis of its relational context (5). Fukuda calls this contextual logic: no religion, no view is taken to be absolute. Throughout their history, the Japanese have developed an important way of allowing the religions of Shinto, Buddhism and Confucianism to co-exist. This is called shinbutsuju shugo a harmonious fusion of Buddhism, Shinto and Confucianism initiated by Prince Shotoku (574 A.D. – 622) (6). It is difficult for the Japanese to accept the concept of an absolute God, presented by an absolute gospel and pointing to a paradise exclusively for those who choose to accept the absolute gospel. But it is also not considered acceptable to think that there is only one absolute law written in one absolute and infallible word of God. In fact, being committed to this places one outside the Japanese worldview. Even the concept of a creator God who is independent of all things is external to it. Thus, Christianity with its message of absolutism is only accepted with difficulty. Religion The concept of harmony is also reflected in the way in which the Japanese view religion. Their understanding of it differs from that of the West. The way they view concepts such as god (as mentioned above), rituals, supernaturalism and life after death contradicts the Christian doctrines introduced there by the Western missionaries. The Japanese people do not understand religion simply by separating it into individual components. Fukuda suggests that Shinto, Buddhism, etc. express different facets of a single, syncretized Japanese religion (7). But the average Japanese views religion as one entity which contains diverse religious traditions within it –Shinto, Buddhism, Christianity and various new religions as well as the less formal traditions of Confucianism and Taoism and the belief in folk traditions (8). Earhart formulates this as one “Sacred Way” that includes various traditions within it (9). On the other hand, Buddhism and Confucianism, which are foreign belief systems, are seen as part of Japanese culture. Miyake suggests that the Japanese people have long accepted other religions incoming from other countries, mainly the Korean Peninsula and China. They were able to add them into their own folk religions. When they received a new religion, they did not deny their own folk religions but rather modified the incoming faith to some extent so that they could easily incorporate it into their existing religious life (10). Yet, Christianity with its centuries long heritage in Japan, it is still viewed as foreign. Its incorporation has not taken place. Most Japanese associate Christianity with the West and consider it to be incompatible with Japanese culture. While they tolerate the Christian church personally and legislatively, many feel that Christianity does not really belong there. This sense that Christianity is foreign to the culture has to do with the fact that the Japanese culture generally tends to be inclusive; in contradistinction to this, Christianity takes a peculiarly exclusive approach when it comes to the concepts such as God and salvation. In sum, the Japanese people do not think of themselves as belonging exclusively to one religion. Most believe that everything is interlinked and interrelated, several traditions may be combined into a single religious activity, or a person may resort to one tradition for one specific purpose and then rely on another for another (11). Christians, however, have difficulty any participation in traditions that are of the limits of their doctrines. The Japanese may culturally and traditionally accept the Christian God into their belief system as one of many gods, but Christians see Jesus Christ as the only way to come to God and the only way to salvation. Such worldviews have hindered Christianity’s expansion in Japan and make it hard for the Japanese to give it full credence as a Japanese religion. Further, there is a crucial difference between the Japanese and the Christian views on the existence of God as this relates to the meaning of life. Fukuda suggests that, in the Christian world, it is the existence of God that gives ultimate meaning and value to everything. Nature and humanity, then, derive meaning and value from God but at the beginning of creation they were damaged by sin of man. The Japanese worldview, however, insists that human life and nature are valuable in and of themselves, and sin is understood as a partial, contemporary, surface stain. Human life is an entity in and of itself and valued without any relationship to a transcendent God (12). In the context of such a view, original sin, the fallen man who has lost his relationship with the creator becomes less relevant. The need for salvation as it is portrayed in Christianity is thus also seen as less relevant. God is not a singular being. Gods for the Japanese are life forces, sources of the manifestation of the energy that is found in the world and people are those who benefit from such life force. People are expected to be the upholders of life and its goodness (13). These gods are unpredictable as is nature, and like humans, they are disposed to jealousy, rage, and other disturbing habits that can interrupt the flow of life and cause problems. In order to harmonize with them the Japanese perform rituals to honor, venerate and thank them. This ensures the balance and harmony between gods and man (14). Bad fortune occurs when humans disrupt this harmony with nature and gods. This makes the Japanese fear that malicious spirits might damage the living. Counter-rituals with strong purification and exorcist themes are performed against the unhappy spirits, so that hindrances may be removed and unhappy spirits calmed (15). Gods are not to be worshipped, but they have to be treated correctly. Correct treatment entails rituals of respect, veneration, propitiation and offerings which seek to gain access to the life giving powers of gods (16). This is not about a personal relationship with God in a Christian sense, but the correct treatment of the gods. Such a view is borne out of fear of misfortune, calamity or the need for good health, luck and fortune. Becoming a Christian can therefore undo this harmony with nature, and with the territorial and family gods. This, in turn, may trigger anger on the part of the gods and spirits that are and have been present to the family or territory for generations. Theological Factors The conflict between these two worldviews, that of the Japanese and that of Western Christianity, of course, effects the Japanese view of Western theological concepts, such as sin, life after death, ancestor venerations, the exclusiveness of Christ. Some of these fundamental theological concepts are in direct conflict with Japanese religious views. Sin As mentioned earlier, sin is considered to be a disturbance of the harmony between gods and a given group of people. The word the Japanese use for “sin” is tsumi which is the same word used for “crime”, so when an evangelist or a missionary claims, “we all have sinned” or “we are all sinners” the average Japanese may not understand what is being—he or she does not consider himself a "criminal". I believe that the concept of sin is more or less unique to the Abrahamic faiths with their origins in the Middle East. Disobedience of God’s laws is considered sin. Yet, how can sin be understood if the concept of God is not the same as the one in Judeo-Christian traditions, and if it is presented in the absence of the concept of "law", the latter being connected to the Judeo-Christian God? The Japanese worldview considers that human beings and the world of nature itself are basically good, and there is no need for universal redemption. Purification rituals can cleanse the Japanese from their “sins”. Yet, in Christianity, humanity is regarded as fallen, as rooted in the original sin. Human nature is evil and the world is cursed; it can only be redeemed through Christ Jesus. This makes it hard for the Japanese to understand the Christian concept of sin, and thus so also limits the success of Christianity in Japan. Ancestors & Salvation Another problematic area is the question of what happened to Japanese people who died before they had the chance to hear the gospel? Almost every Japanese who is evangelized by Western missionaries asks this question. Of course, missionaries try to answer it as sensitively as possible, but ultimately they will have to mention the word hell. A Japanese woman once told a missionary who was trying to evangelize her that she would rather spend eternity in hell with her ancestors than in the paradise preached by Christians. If the Christian God has no solution to the fact that her ancestors did not have a chance to hear about Jesus, she would rather spend all eternity in hell. In Japanese worldview, ancestors are to be venerated. In Christian doctrine salvation is by choice and if this choice disturbs the harmony with the family’s ancestors, then it is then hard for a Japanese to openly become a Christian. According to evangelical Christian doctrine, generally, the dead are either in hell or in heaven. They can be in heaven by the personal choice they have made for Jesus Christ. If one did not make this choice, he/she has no place in heaven. He/she will rather be punished for the wrongdoings and mistakes he/she has committed and nothing can change that fact. In the Japanese context, this can be seen as arrogant and insensitive to those who have passed away. There have been many attempts to address this theological doctrine from the perspective of Japanese culture. One of the recent ones is the so-called Sekundo Chansu Ron (セカンドチャンス論) or Second Chance Theory. The concept of Second Chance Theory is simply about salvation for the dead, especially those who have never had a chance to hear the gospel, in Japan’s case, the ancestors. Thus, accepting Western Christianity could disturb the already existing harmony with these ancestors. Missiological Factors The answer to the question of why Christianity has not succeed in Japan yet can be found in part in the way the Christian mission has been conducted there throughout history, and even in the way in which it is conducted today! Western missionaries have had have a positive influence on the development of Christianity there. Western Christianity in all its forms and varieties has played a dominant role in transmitting the Christian message and this was done by sending out missionaries around the globe. Robert Lee suggests that enlightenment in the West envisioned the world as a homogeneous entity, a vision reinforced by the rise of the world market in the nineteenth century after the earlier industrial revolution (17). In historical context, the work of Western missionaries is to a certain degree influenced by the Western colonial views of other peoples and cultures. Often, these missionaries viewed non-Western peoples as heathens and claimed that they needed to know Christ. In other words, the Western Christian missionary has in some ways operated within a colonialist and imperialist framework. Non-Western theologians consider this a form of Western Imperialism given the Western stress on the continuing validity of the terminology of the early church. That terminology was appropriated by the Greco-Roman culture and then became absolutized (18). As John Parratt states: “If economic and political disruption resulted from Western imperialism, the demonization of indigenous cultures was more likely to be the result of European Christian missions. This happened most dramatically with ‘traditional’ or folk cultures, from which the majority of Christian converts were drawn. Popular Hindu ‘idolatry’ or African ‘fetishism’ became frequent themes, especially for Christian missionaries who were eager to gain support from their Western churches. These forms of religiosity were demonized by the use of emotive and pejorative terminology. Little attempt was made to understand the kind of spirituality, which had given rise to these forms of religion (19). ” Yoshinobu Kumazawa suggests that in the past, the Western styles of missionary work caused the non-Western world to believe that God's action towards the world is always mediated by the Western church, that God's work in non-Christian countries is mediated only by so-called Christian countries; that Christianity is to be exported from Christian countries and implanted in non-Christian ones (20). Kumazawa observes that this has created many problems in the history of the missions, because it has led to the mistaken thought that the so-called Christian countries are superior to non-Christian ones. The fatal flaw here is the presumption that God could not work directly in non-Christian countries without the mediation of Christian ones, (21) Japan being no exception. From the sixteenth century onward, missionaries from various Western Church traditions and denominations were active in Japan. And, their approach to the culture was blatantly ethnocentric and systematically destructive. I here classify four major errors committed by Western missionaries in Japan throughout history: (1) Eurocentric approach, (2) lack of consideration for cultural context, (3) competitiveness and (4) direct or indirect involvement with western political agendas. Societal Factors In modern Japanese society there are several factors which have caused organized Christianity not to succeed. I here discuss three major ones: Japanese family life, and work life, and education. Family To understand the Japanese family and even Japanese society it is essential to know about the traditional family system, which is called Ie, the indigenous term for family; however, it does not convey the exact meaning of the word ‘family’ as we use it in the West. Ie can be translated as ‘house’ or ‘building,’ but it is also used in a broader sense as ‘family’ or ‘kin.’ It includes an entire structure —the main family and various subfamilies. According to Reischauer and Graig, the pre-modern Japanese family or ie might include a subordinate branch, a family which was under the authority of the main one and other members who were distant relatives or not related at all. The father or family council had absolute authority over individual members. This kind of family structure was particularly prevalent among prominent members of the feudal warrior class, rich merchants, and certain peasant groups. In her book, Understanding Japanese Society, Joy Hendry writes that continuity is a very important feature of the ie. The individual members of a particular house, who need not always be resident there, represent the living members of that particular ie. The total membership includes those of all generations: ancestors who had been forgotten as individuals, those who are recently deceased and still remembered, and descendants yet to be born (22). Traditional Japanese houses contain a Buddhist altar known as a butsudan at which family members venerate their ancestors deceased individuals of the ie. Thus Ie was a hierarchical family system based on the Confucian principles of honor and loyalty. These applied to all relationships within the ie. Old–young relationships were based on loyalty and indebtedness and were defined in terms of duty. Performance of one’s duties to members of the ie system was considered of paramount importance. This system affected the relationship between men and women: men had a much higher status. After the surrender of Japan and the victory of the Allied forces in 1945, the new government abolished the ie family system. Since 1945, the educational system has dropped the absolute emperor/family-state (ie-state) ideology. In the new constitution, the family was defined as a nuclear unit rather than a collection of various family units and women were treated equally so that they enjoyed the same rights as men. I personally believe one of the reasons why the ie system was abolished was to discourage veneration of ancestors. However the ideas behind ie system are still put into practice especially in rural areas. An ideal ie is a harmonious relationship between the visible and invisible members of the family, both living and dead. The contemporary Japanese family resembles the traditional Western family with father, mother, and children living in small apartments in urban areas. Japanese people have a very unique concept of home (uchi). It literary means ‘home’ but also, ‘inside.’ Everything outside the home is referred to as soto, which literary means ‘outside.’ However, uchi–soto does not just refer to the literal home or to inside and outside; rather, it is a form of the ie family system. In this case, uchi means home and everything internal to it. It may also be related to cleanliness, beauty and everything associated with goodness. Uchi may also be related to the ie to which someone belongs. Practicing a religion from outside (soto) may effect the harmony of the inside (uchi). Nuclear families living in large cities also engage in various activities, such as school activities for children, neighborhood activities which are crucial to ensure that group harmony is effected and that the family is not brought to shame and disgrace. For this reason, the average Japanese family may not have enough time left to participate in additional Christian activities such as church services, mid-week prayer meetings or other events. The requirement of attending church on a weekly basis may be quite burdensome for the average modern Japanese family. This itself already suffices to discourage people from accepting and practicing Christianity. Occupational Factors The Japanese are known as an industrious people. They work long hours and are almost never absent from their jobs. This is the image many have of their workforce. A Japanese employee is generally referred to as salaryman, an English loan word. Again, it is important to recall that Japan is a group-oriented society. A great deal of emphasis is placed on the group membership and participation. As mentioned above, the Japanese refer to such groups as uchi, which means both ‘house’ and ‘inside’ and generally refers to the family. However, uchi does not refer only to the family; it can have various other connotations depending on context. The company or the place where people work becomes uchi and the colleagues become family members. This is why group activities, group performance of various services, and company benefits are so important in Japan. Working in Japan requires not only doing your job skillfully, but also fitting in with the company culture. In other words, the Japanese feel it is important to love their company. In Japan, it is believed that the morals and mental attitudes of the individual have an important bearing on productivity. Loyalty to the company has long been highly regarded. A man may be an excellent technician, but if his way of thinking and his morals differ from those of the company, it will not hesitate to dismiss him. Men who enter a company after working for another one at a comparatively advanced stage in their working lives tend to be difficult to mold and their loyalties are suspect (23) Since this lifetime employment system is a family-like group, it also pervades the private lives of the employees. This is crucial to a sense of group unity because the individual’s total emotional participation in a group helps form a closed world; lack of such a commitment can result in either independence from the group or isolation from it (24). Most major corporations also conduct religious rituals. For example, one very famous electronic company has a special sanctuary for worshiping gods and ancestors who became gods. There are also statutes of famous Japanese and international scientists such as Thomas Edison (who is honored as the god of electricity) for employees to venerate. These kinds of rituals are rooted in Japanese culture and are still practiced in many major companies. During my research, I discovered that some Japanese companies have created their own company religion with rites and ceremonies designed to bolster the work atmosphere and ensure a sense of unity. Most Japanese companies do not want to employ people who are members of religious organizations because they feel that their loyalties will be divided. Thomas P. Rohlen conducted a case study of a Japanese bank and reviewed its management and culture. In his book, For Harmony and Strength, he describes the ceremonies that were conducted at the company. He discusses the various catechisms recited during the entrance ceremony when individuals joined the company. Employees sing the company anthem together. He found out that the bank does not want to employ members of ‘new religions’ that demand considerable time and effort from their members, but not because it considers these religions inherently bad; on the contrary, it views many of them as being positive moral forces. But the bank does not want its employees to have divided loyalties. Furthermore, the religious behavior of the parents of a potential employee is important: the bank is not interested in employing the children of religious zealots (25). Japanese companies have created their own religion and what they practice is no less a religion than that practiced by religious organizations. The habit of not employing people who are members of a religious organization is an indication of the competition that exists between the ‘company religion’ and conventional religions. To re-iterate, becoming a Christian and practicing Christianity, may not be an easy option for a Japanese to choose, especially for someone from the working class. It is time consuming and may distract that person from his/her duties towards the company and thus effect the harmony of the company as a group. Education The Japanese educational system has generated a great deal of debate among scholars and educators. Some praise it and some others criticize it. Some believe that the strong emphasis it places on the group and on unity results in each child’s individuality being ignored. Others suggest that such a highly authoritarian educational system can frustrate their development, or even lead to suicide. The Japanese educational system is group oriented and the cohesion of the group is more important than individual competition in classes. Students are discouraged from asking their teachers many questions because they may be perceived as disrupting the group for the sake of their own personal interests. In sports, the group is also emphasized over the individual. Once students have been accepted into a school, the Japanese very skillfully avoid overt competition among them and downplay differences in ability. In fact, almost no one fails. However, the ruthless entrance examinations represent competition at its worst and they cast a shadow on student’s lives far in advance of their adult years. They subject them to severe pressure throughout most of their schooling and distort the content of their education. Much of the training that is done in senior high schools is devoted not to learning as such, but to preparing students to pass university entrance examinations. On the other hand, the Japanese education system provides children with practical knowledge of the importance of unity, harmony, and discipline; this is called moral education. In Japan, going to school is not just about acquiring knowledge; Japanese education emphasizes moral education such as diligence, endurance, deciding to do hard things, wholehearted dedication to a task, and co-operation. For example, children are organized into cleaning groups and expected to cooperate to keep their school clean. Physical education is also very important. Exercise is required every morning. A choice for Christianity and weekly participation in Sunday services may be time consuming both for the students and their parents, especially for the mothers of children attending schools or high schools. Political Factors Throughout history, most Japanese have viewed Christianity as the religion of the West. Since World War II, Christianity has been associated with America in particular—the nation that utilized two nuclear bombs on civilians to end the war. Thus it is viewed as the religion of the occupying “messiah”, a nation that has deliberately forgotten its dark past, (the eradication of the native peoples in the Americas, slavery, racism and segregation), and yet accuses Japan of genocide, war crimes and acts of cruelty in the course of human history. Even though the Japanese do not directly express their feelings concerning America and organized Christianity, one can read between lines and, using common sense, come to several conclusions that may make it clear why Christianity has not succeeded there to a significant extent. Japanese are in certain way disappointed and confused when it comes to the nuclear attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Historically, Nagasaki is a well-known center of Japanese Christianity. It was not only the location of the largest Christian Cathedral in the Asia (St. Mary’s) but also had the largest concentration of baptized Christians in all of Japan. These facts make it even more difficult for the Japanese to understand why a Christian nation such as America would to drop a nuclear bomb on a Christian city– immediately after Japan’s surrender when thousands of American missionaries were sent to Japan to Christianize the nation. The nuclear bombings of Japan and its surrender are also viewed as a cause of humiliation. Since it is a shame and guilt oriented society, humiliation plays an important role in everyday life both on individual and the collective level. Collective humiliation has therefore also played a role Christianity’s lack of success there. Two factors are at work in this: The emperor’s being forced to disavow his divinity, and the guilt messages propagated by the Americans. After Japan’s surrendered at the end of World War II, the nation had to start over again. Under pressure from the Americans, it had to implement Western style democracy. Among the very important implications of this were, that the emperor denied his divinity and Shinto, the state religion, was abolished. Under the occupation, his divine power was dissolved which is an enormous humiliation to a culture. I am very well aware of the faults and war crimes that Japan as nation has committed throughout its history. Still, this does not mean that one has to eliminate its belief system and tradition, even if such believe system or tradition has been used to justify evildoing. Even the Christian God has been unjustly used to destroy and harm other nations for purposes of political and economic gain. I am also not suggesting that worshipping a deified emperor is correct. I am only looking at the unethical way in which the culture of a nation was undermined through systematic humiliation. From this perspective, Christianity cannot be viewed as a positive religion. On the other hand, according to some Japanese scholars I have interviewed (26) , the shame-guilt concept discussed earlier was programmed to bring humiliation upon Japan by the occupying force. The American government used the War Guilt Information Program, immediately after the country’s capitulation. One of the people I interviewed said the following: The "War Guilt Information Program" aimed to persuade all the Japanese, "Japan was a bad country. The Japanese must feel guilty. Especially the leaders were bad. The general public was victims." Their logic was that the United States was 100 percent good, and Japan was 100 percent bad. The missionaries also had such a mind. They were kind, loving and good Christians, but had a mind such as, "If you believe in Christianity, you will become better people." Those who did not know the real modern history obeyed the missionaries, but those who knew it could not trust them, feeling their arrogance and misunderstandings of the history (27). Yukio Tanaka remembers the tragic event of September 11, 2001 and expresses his sorrow about this tragedy, but he also asks “Why?” He responds by suggesting that the American national psyche cannot but repeat the same pattern of aggressive invasion in dealing with the “other.” Doing this will, however, not cease so long as rationalization (i.e. justifying military action) and illusion (a self-image that America is the “just” nation) continue to dominate the public consciousness (28) In Japan, Christianity and the West are conflated, taken to be inseparable. For the majority of the Japanese people, Christianity remains a Western religion that is used by Western political powers to expand their influence and gain control of other nations. In conclusion, I would argue that there is no single, clear answers to the question of why Christianity has not yet succeed in Post World War II Japan. Instead, there are multiple answers and they are to be found in the combination of conditions and the interaction of the factors discussed above.

はなまるぴっぴはよいこだけ-(动漫《阿松》OP)-(TV Size) - A応P ひらりひらりも隙のうちと 就在无人发觉的转瞬之间 かけこみ すべりこみ うっとり 已悄然间溜进身边 これぞカミカゼ 沿う太陽 这正如“神风”所遵循的教条 虫の息 ひと知れず 白白献身，死而后已 たいへんなの 現場は火事 人间纷争可真是大事不好 憂いなおめめから 発射だ ぽーん 神情忧郁的战士们叩响手中的扳机 どうかなこれ 新型ギミック “不知这次的新手段如何啊” あまりに革新的なひと 革新者们如是说道 ここからはじめて古今東西 由此开始，古今内外 鳴りやまぬ花 焼べるは水平線 哀鸣不绝的“花儿”们点燃了遥远的水平线 めろめろとろけてぽぽんちゅうちゅうさ 美妙醉人的甜蜜奖赏 明日も昨日のよいこだけ 只给时刻听话的好孩子 これおあがりとくくりつけられ 被诱饵哄骗着深陷其中 逃げ腰 抱っこじゃん 即使想要逃离也束手无策 電源抜いちまうかもう 即使拔掉电源也为时已晚 だって 因为 もどれない？ 嗚呼 早已不能倒退 かえれない？ 嗚呼 早已不能回头 時限式カラミティ 惨剧的发生只是时间问题 一生全力モラトリアム 用一生努力扮演一个木偶 今日から明日は昨日の未来 无论在何时何地 よいよいころころ よいこらっしょ 任人摆布，心甘情愿 この世に要るのはよいこだけ 世间所需要的一切只给这样的好孩子 ちゅーちゅ ちゅっちゅ 只要在这蜜糖般的赏赐之中 ちゅーるちゅる ちゅるりら 尽情沉醉下去就好 雨ニモ風ニモ負ケズ 如此便能不畏风雨 ちら盛りの美学や ばらばら 这才是昙花一现的美学啊

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(美国《星岛日报》注：梁培炽先生是一位著名的学者，著述甚丰，现任金巴仑中学校长、三藩市(旧金山)州立大学兼任教授、世界汉语教学学会永久会员。梁先生长期从事华文教育与研究，近年来先后发表《美国华文教育发展的新理念》、《三藩市华文教育现状与发展刍议》、《美国华文教育发展的深层思考》等篇。十月九日又应邀在“美国华人发展研讨会”上讲演《华语正名说》，现征得其同意，将其讲稿先在本报发表，以飨读者，谨向梁先生深致谢意。) 日常有不少朋友或学生家长问我，在我们华文学校里教的究竟是台湾的中文，还是中国大陆的中文，或是香港的中文呢﹖ 这的的确确是我们华文教育上常常遇到困扰的问题。事实上也是一个要我们大家必须明白的课题。由于两岸三地历史发展的成因，这一问题，常常把我们弄得也无可奈何。因为台湾用的是繁体字，讲的是“国语”；香港用的也是繁体字，讲的却是广东话；而中国大陆用的是简体字，讲的是“普通话”。这样，自然是不少人以为是三种不同的语言了。怎么样学呢﹖究竟学那一地那一种的呢﹖ 还有，在我们日常生活、工作和学习的各方接触中，华语又叫普通话、国语、汉语、中国话和唐话等。华文则叫中文、汉字，或叫汉文、唐字。众说纷纭，不知究竟，无所适从，怎不教华童满头雾水呢﹖ 要解决这个问题，首先要明确我们华文教育的对像是什么人，确定我们华文教育的属性，作出适当的定位，弄清我们华文教育的路向，然后再了解各个概念的内涵及其演变，才能给我们弄清楚它的究竟。 一、那么，谁是我们华文教育的对象呢﹖我们华文教育的属性又是什么﹖ 我们华文教育的对象，毫无疑问，当然是“华人”，是来自五湖四海的炎黄子孙及其后裔。我们的教育对象是华裔的美国人，而不是“中国人”，也不是传统的“华侨”。今天在美国的华文教育，不是传统的侨民教育，而是我们华人的族裔语言和民族传统文化的教育。 什么是华侨，什么是华人和华裔﹖它们间又有什么样的关系﹖ 华侨、华人与华裔，看来这似乎是同一个概念三个不同名称的叫法，但其实，它们的具体含义却是不同的。我们的华文教育，是面向华人或华裔而不是华侨，这是我们进行华文教育时必须要弄清楚的首要前提。 这是因为，华侨是保留了中国国籍而又工作或生活在中国国境之外的中国人。简单地说，华侨就是生活在中国以外的中国人，但不是居住国的公民。 那么，华人又是什么﹖ 华人者，凡是生活在中国以外的，他们既持有中国护照，又还没有所在国的国籍，但又具有所在国永久居留权的中国公民，这类人或迟早都会向所在国归化而放弃中国籍的，或是已归化了所在国的第一代移民，我们都把他们称呼为华人。 至于华裔，那是出生在中国以外的华侨和华人的后代及其子子孙孙。 由于当代国际形势的变化发展，尤自第二次大战之后，中国境外的华侨，都先后向华人转变。不论美国，还是中国，其立法都是不采取双重国籍的。所以，不论华人也好，华裔也好，他们都变成了所在国的公民，成为美国多元民族中的一元。从国籍法的角度看，他们已经不是“中国人”，而是“美国人”了。那么，美国的华文教育，其对象具体地说，应是华裔的美国人。所以，今天美国的华文教育，已不是传统的侨民教育，而是真真正正的华文教育。 为什么呢﹖ 这是因为侨民教育，它是对谋生和居住在国外而又保留自己原有国籍的侨民及其子女，施行与本国政府教育制度基本相一致的教育，它是本国政府对自己国民的教育在国外的延伸。今天美国的华文教育，则是在美国的华人群体，或作为一个少数民族，对自己的族裔进行本民族的语言和传统文化的教育。 当今我们的华文教育，所面向和立足的是华人，在法理上不是“中国人”。美国的华文教育，无疑是要服务于美国的广大的华族，是在美国的华人族群对其后代进行祖语和传统文化的教育。既然我们是华人，那么我们所说的当然是“华语”，这是“名正言顺”的。这样的正名，对我们族裔的成长，对我们华人族群迅速地融入美国主流社会，与其他族裔一起，携手迈进，是很有帮助的。因为“国语”者，一个国家之共同语言也。若我们整天叫中国的“汉语”或“普通话”或“国语”为我们美国华人的“国语”，试问又怎样去向美国人和美国的社会交代呢﹖这对我们华裔的成长是没有好处的。 所以，我们在华文教育中教的是华语。 二、那么，我们的华语究竟是以哪一种华人方言作为普遍使用的共同语言﹖ 这又是我们要解决的课题。要知道，从“国语”到“普通话”，在广义的层面来说，两者的含义基本上是没有很大的不同，在一定的历史时期内发挥着它们各自的功能。 “国语”或“普通话”名称，虽是近代才出现，但其含义，在中国传统文化中，却是古来有之，它是有一个悠长的发展过程的。我们只有了解了它在发展过程中的演变，才能找到我们“华语”的标准，才能确立我们“华语”的规范。 到了1909年的宣统元年，清政府的资政院开会，江永议员就正式提出要把“官话”正名为 “国语”。从此，“国语”一名，便正式在官方和民间开始采用了。迄后，中国国内形势发生了变化，以国民党所领导的国民政府，退居到了台湾并推行国语运动，雷厉风行，仅仅在10年时间里面，就在台湾全省普及了国语。“国语”一名，便随着海外侨教的推广，数十年来，在海外广为流行。 惟在中国大陆，1949年10月中华人民共和国成立，对国语的推行也不遗余力，1955年便召开会议，决定以“普通话”作为汉民族的民族共同语正式名称，已不再沿用原来的“国语”。1956年2月国务院颁布了《关于推广普通话的指示》，正式规定了普通话的内容，要“以北京语音为标准音，以北方方言为基础方言，以典范的现代白话文著作为语法的规范。” 其实，汉语乃是汉民族共同使用的语言。但是，为什么不称“汉语”，不叫“国语”而正名为“普通话”﹖ 这是因为中国是一个多民族的国家，如果把北京话称为“国语”，这就抹煞了中国是一个多民族国家的事实。中国的标准话是“普通话”，是全国各地各族人民普遍使用的共通的语言。所以现在中国的“国语”是“普通话”而不是“国语”。 中国“国语”一名，自1909年从"官话"正名为“国语”于今，已经有九十多年了。台湾和海外于今一般来说仍是此称。惟自1955年起，中国大陆已不再沿用此称而改为“国语”。香港和澳门，原也叫“国语”，但自上世纪80年代开始，随着两地社会情势的变化，已慢慢地改称“国语”了。然新加坡命名为“华语”，因为新加坡的“国语”是马来语。至于“汉语”一名，主要在中国国内流行，惟其一般都是用在学术著作中，有时是指汉民族的共同语而言，有时是指方言而称。“华语”一名，最早是由新加坡用开的，随后在台湾和中国大陆，也时有所用。现在，“华语”一名，在世界各地，包括中国大陆和台湾，都已相当普遍地使用了。 当今普天之下，我们海外的华人，都是同种同文，同为炎黄民族的子孙，但是在很多时候，对同一种事物的表达或称呼，却有多种不同的用词，为了我们共同的事业，为了发展我们华人文化，为了我们民族的凝聚，我们华人共同语名称上的协调规范，是十分重要的。那么，“华语”究竟仍以“国语”或“普通话”称呼﹖又或者称它为汉语﹖这都是需要我们弄清楚的。 按普通话和国语，已如前述。它们有明显的相对性，只有在一定的国度里面才能展示出了它的内涵，表现了它的功能。因它们只有明显的共性，而无明显的个性，随意性也很大。它们都没有具体地说明那个国家的官方语言和它的民族共同语是什么，它们只是一个泛指词，缺乏了明确的“内容”和明显的“个性”。因为每一个国家都有该国的“国语”，这种国家的共同语，也可以说是该国的“普通话”。中国话就是中国的“国语”，这“国语”就是中国的“普通话”。可见，在我们美国华文教育的领域里，教学华语，仍称"国语"或叫做“普通话”，显然是很不恰当的。华语的标准音将以“普通话”为其标准和规范，是华语历史发展的必然。 三、结语：基于我们今天的华文教育对象是美国华人的子女，或者说是美国华人。今天美国的华文教育，乃是美国华人的族裔文化教育。 所以，应该把它的语言定位为“华语”，也叫它做“华语”，甚至全世界的海外华人都应作如是观。 “华语”就是我们华人所使用的语言。基于我们华人族群中内部方言的复杂性和多样性，为了促进华人族群的团结，增强族裔的凝聚，为了传承和发展华人文化，就需要我们华人的共同语，这样华人的语言也就需要统一，要统一就必须要有一个标准。我们“华语”的标准，基于其历史发展背景及其递变，毫无疑义应该是以中国的“普通话”为其标准。这样，“华语”与英语、法语、德语、葡语、日语、西班牙语等是并立的。同时，它还可以和“华文”相配。“华文”与“华语”，正像“英语”和“英文”，的相配一样。诸贤大家，以为然否﹖尚祈博雅君子，不吝教正，不胜感幸。 来源：美国《星岛日报》 转自：中新网 作者：梁培炽

I was super hyped for this game and spam played it for 5 hours, everyday for a week. Given that I live in South-East Asia as well, my connection issues was never bad. But the main reason that I thought that the game failed, was a few things. I actually thought this game could become competitive and have tournaments, given that it was a lot like League of Legends or Dota. 1) People can lock onto you in stealth while playing Ninja. Seriously? What's the point of stealth then? 2) The flying mechanic should be indefinite or at least a hell lot longer, trying to dash around juking shots proved impossible since you can't move if your flight time is used up, resulting in free damage or death. 3) The weapon/costume unlock system is really RNG, and you need to actually win to unlock things faster. So basically you either endure the time it takes to probably get a shit item, or you P2P. 4) The melee attack was really clunky. There were times when I was standing point blank and still somehow missed the attack. 5) Some classes just simply outclass other characters, rendering them unplayable. The sniper isn't all that great and is really easy to kill. And playing against a good Ninja has little to no counterplay, much like Rengar in League of Legends. The girl that calls in Air Strikes was SO FRIGGIN ANNOYING, and to be honest, I just leave the lobby once I see her in my game. 6) Connection issues for people in the west seemed to be a problem. If the servers allowed people in the West to play better, the game would be hella lot more populated. 7) This game lacked exposure. Lots of it. Sure Steparu is here to expose some unheard-of games to the community, but how many people actually come to read it? Not a lot. If people started playing this on Twitch or something, this game would have it's servers full in no time. 8) Maybe it's just me, but I felt that target swapping was really clunky, more often than not, I end up locking in onto the wrong person, which forces me to run the wrong way. If you guys don't know, if you only press forward while locking on, you make a bee-line to that target. 9) The game requires LOTS of time put in to actually get good at. Equipment is one thing, but to actually understand character/weapon mechanics is pretty hard, given that you can fly in all 360 degree angles. 10) More maps. When the game first came out, there was like, 2 maps. Shibuya and one other. You will quickly come to realise that it gets pretty boring... They did end up adding more maps which made the game more fun again, but by that point no one really played it. Server population was already sub 20% 11) I don't know if it was just me, but loading the main menu took a while, and couldn't actually join a game. However the game did a few good things: 1) Character variety. You had stealth, snipers, Miniguns, etc. The game was fast regardless of who you played which made it enjoyable. 2) No chat system. People cannot flame you for how bad you are, since the game requires all your attention moving and killing the next target. 3) Teammates are replaced by another person who wants to play. Say you cick play again, you will have the same teammates, but you won't be sent to the main menu if one of them leaves, instead the game searches for a pending player. 3) 3D movement. This was simply amazing. It was like League, but you can move in all 360 degrees. 4) Fast Paced. When you die, theres no respawn timer. You just click on a part of the map that is considered your teams side and you spawn there. 5) Item variety. I know I said earlier that getting better items were tedious and the system was bad. But the fact that even as normal items, the playstyle can change drastically. You can spend 2 hours on using the shotgun on Ninja, but once you unlock something like the Golden Pistol, you can not longer be careless with your shots, and have to really aim. (Bad analogy, but hope you get the point) 6) Interactive Map. You can blow buildings up, how is that not fun? Of course the building is still there, but you see like burned up, skeleton of the building, not the pretty ones you see on the streets.

这首歌其实注意有些日子了 一直都觉得旋律很清爽 节奏很轻快 非常动听 早些时候看到了有live的片源 看到了之后觉得live的取景 角度 清晰度太赞 而且原本就也很想作一番高桥X真沉也原本也想和前几部一样 采用BGM+松冈食堂片源制作 不过这回使用了混搭live+松冈食堂穿插 浮现出元气少女的反差萌 less is more的效果其实比在制作时预期的还要柔和 无违和 在下这回真的制作得非常满意 不愧是实力派元气少女 http://www.bilibili.com/video/av3860213/ http://www.nicovideo.jp/watch/sm28236641

张钧蜜 因为大张伟中途放弃划竹筏 而因此落下女儿泪 原因应该分成三大项： 自己在大张伟身上看到了只要大张伟不放弃 两人互补 一定能划得过的可能性 但是因为无法极力成功的说服大张伟让大张伟知道他们倆是能克服这项挑战的 而为大张伟感到怜惜 不禁感到惭愧 自己因为是女儿身 自己身上身为女儿身而受到“弱”的既定印象 而让大张伟感到“我的搭档是个弱女子 就算我瘫在竹筏上什么也不动 搭档不是个硬汉 绝对不会成功” 自己过去的十几天 以为和自己的搭档一起克服了种种的困难 一起在荒郊野岭成长 互相游乐意识 默契 万万没想到 对方却因为怯弱 在自己不断的苦口婆心下 放弃了挑战 被背叛 被辜负了 张钧蜜应该挑战饰演母亲的角色 应该会十分有看头 如果来年张钧蜜戏剧作品中有母亲的角色 小弟肯定支持支持 全力推崇 张钧蜜和大张伟这对“母子” 其实已经是在适合不过了 大张伟的确懦弱 但是他因为没有普罗大众男性的自傲与强烈的自尊感 对张钧蜜的援助不感到反感 换句话说 如果张钧蜜与另外一名男性搭档起来 张钧蜜因为能说得上是一名能把一般男性给比下去的女豪 这位男性新搭档如果自尊心强 必然会对张钧蜜那份热切的关怀而让自己自尊受到挫伤 为自己的懦弱感到厌恶 相同的 大张伟那“我就是不行 我就是不要 我就是讨厌 你能拿我怎么样”好爽不做作 直白不要脸的个性 其他女性成员在自己都不能保护自己的能力下 还要无时无刻照料一位“巨婴” 对她们来说 是一项如此庞大的考验 甚至比活吞老鼠 蟋蟀 来的要危机性命与安危